It is shed in the droppings of infected rabbits and is probably transmitted by the droppings-mouth route. Otitis media (middle ear infection) and otitis interna (inner ear infection) are caused by bacterial infections. The wound is then either closed with surgical glue or sutured [58,59,62,63]. Feldman C., Munro N.C., Jeffery P.K., Mitchell T.J., Andrew P.W., Boulnois G.J., Guerreiro D., Rohde J.A.L., Todd H.C., Cole P.J., et al. Herbold W., Maus R., Hahn I., Ding N., Srivastava M., Christman J.W., Mack M., Reutershan J., Briles D.E., Paton J.C., et al. If you dont see your state on the list, you can review the complete list on the CDC website. Feldmesser M., Casadevall A. Therefore, animal models have been developed to better understand the pathogenesis of pneumococcal disease and test new therapeutic agents and vaccines. Signs are gelatinous or mucus-covered droppings, loss of appetite, loss of energy, low body temperature, dehydration, rough coat, and often a bloated abdomen due to excess water in the stomach. Hutch burn is often confused with a bacterial disease called treponematosis (see above). Lethal pneumonia in a captive juvenile chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) due to human-transmitted human respiratory syncytial virus (HRSV) and infection with Streptococcus pneumoniae. Signs include lack of energy, rough coat, staining around the hind end, and death within 48 hours. Shope fibromas, a type of benign tumor caused by a virus, are found in nature only in cottontails, although domestic rabbits can be infected by virus-containing material. WebThe survival rate of rabbits after cardiopulmonary resuscitation is: 6% 12% 24% 50% 60% a Which of these molecules is the most analgesic in rabbits? The position of the animal during instillation has shown little impact on delivery of the inoculum [64]. Robust Pneumonia Model in Immunocompetent Rodents to Evaluate Antibacterial Efficacy against. Shak J.R., Cremers A.J., Gritzfeld J.F., De Jonge M.I., Hermans P.W., Vidal J.E., Klugman K.P., Gordon S.P. ASN100 improves survival in rabbit MRSA and MSSA pneumonia models. It is suggested that pneumococcus is not naturally carried by NPHs. Moine P., Mazoit J.X., Bdos J.P., Valle E., Azoulay-Dupuis E. Correlation between in vitro and in vivo activity of amoxicillin against Streptococcus pneumoniae in a murine pneumonia model. Kim M.K., Zhou W., Tessier P.R., Xuan D., Ye M., Nightingale C.H., Nicolau D.P. Signs may include loss of appetite, depression, and weight loss. Follow your veterinarians treatment program carefully for the best results. Antibiotic treatment may not cure the infection, however. Your rabbits cage and other living areas should be thoroughly sanitized. Owners of infected rabbits should avoid close contact with their pets and use disposable gloves, followed by thorough hand and arm washing when handling infected rabbits, cleaning cages and equipment, or disposing of waste materials. A study by Thevaranjan et al. However, the death The rabbit must be removed from the cage or given a solid floor (board or mat) on which to sit or rest. Dalli J., Kraft B.D., Colas R.A., Shinohara M., Fredenburgh L.E., Hess D.R., Chiang N., Welty-Wolf K., Choi A.M., Piantadosi C.A., et al. Bergeron Y., Ouellet N., Deslauriers A.M., Simard M., Olivier M., Bergeron M.G. Cell-cell interactions and bronchoconstrictor eicosanoid reduction with inhaled carbon monoxide and resolvin D1. WebThe animals were euthanized on day 4, and survival and pulmonary histopathology were compared between groups. The incubation period is 3 to 6 weeks. Rabbits should not be given penicillin by mouth because oral penicillin can cause dangerous antibiotic-associated diarrhea. Mracsko E., Stegemann-Koniszewski S., Na S.Y., Dalpke A., Bruder D., Lasitschka F., Veltkamp R. A Mouse Model of Post-Stroke Pneumonia Induced by Intra-Tracheal Inoculation with Streptococcus pneumoniae. There is no effective treatment, but intensive fluid therapy, antibiotics, and pain relievers may be tried. Invasive pneumococcal disease leads to activation and hyperreactivity of platelets. Pathogenesis is one of the major goals of rabbit models, according to our research. A high mortality rate has been noted in cases caused by Pasteurella multocida, Staphylococcus aureu s or Pseudomonas. [(accessed on 24 May 2018)]; File T.M., Jr. Clinical implications and treatment of multiresistant Streptococcus pneumoniae pneumonia. Results: In all, 12.5% of rabbits (n = 8) instilled with CS-thickened water survived until the endpoint of the study (day 4). In humans, the pneumococcal serotype prevalence differs over time, by age group and by geographic area, and is influenced by vaccine use. These and other medical problems are discussed in this section. Since it is beyond the scope of the present review, viral (typically Influenza)-pneumococcal coinfection models will not be discussed here. Williams A.E., Jos R.J., Brown J.S., Chambers R.C. Marquette C.H., Mensier E., Copin M.C., Desmidt A., Freitag L., Witt C., Petyt L., Ramon P. Experimental models of tracheobronchial stenoses: A useful tool for evaluating airway stents. Isolation of sick animals and treatment of symptoms is advised. The formation of mineral deposits in the urinary tract (sometimes known as kidney or bladder stones) is common in pet rabbits. Hydrogen Sulfide Donor NaHS Reduces Organ Injury in a Rat Model of Pneumococcal Pneumosepsis, Associated with Improved Bio-Energetic Status. Young rabbits are the age group most susceptible to hepatic coccidiosis. Another breed found as a pneumonia model is Dutch-belted rabbits, which, due to their smaller size, require approximately 40% less drug than studies conducted with New Zealand White rabbits [98]. Major diseases caused by S. pneumoniae are otitis media, pneumonia, sepsis, and meningitis. Death usually occurs within 1 to 2 weeks after signs appear. Occasionally, a rabbit survives for several weeks; in these cases, thick lumps appear on the nose, ears, and forefeet. The seasonal incidence of the disease, signs (especially the swollen genitalia), and high death rate all help veterinarians make the diagnosis. It is highly contagious and is transmitted primarily by direct contact, although transmission by coughing or sneezing may also occur. Goldstein I., Wallet F., Nicolas-Robin A., Ferrari F., Marquette C.H., Rouby J.J. No effective treatment is available. Reprod. Enter search terms to find related veterinary topics, multimedia and more. The hair may fall out, and the area may become infected or infested with fly larvae (maggots). Hot, humid weather, along with poorly ventilated hutches or transport in poorly ventilated vehicles, may cause death, particularly in pregnant does. The disease is more common in first-litter does. Transmission of the pinworm occurs by ingesting contaminated food or water. The link you have selected will take you to a third-party website. Watering systems with drinking valves generally prevent wet dewlaps. The rabbit uterus consists of 2 divisions (horns). Azoulay-Dupuis E., Mohler J., Bdos J.P. Efficacy of BB-83698, a novel peptide deformylase inhibitor, in a mouse model of pneumococcal pneumonia. In addition, this review expanded the use of the different animal pneumococcal pneumonia models including relevant information about microbiological pneumococcal properties, mode of bacterial inoculation, pathogenesis, and the direct correlation with clinical disease as the one observed in humans. Occasionally, a rabbit survives for several weeks; in these cases, thick lumps appear on the nose, ears, and forefeet. Your veterinarian will treat the condition with injectable or topical medication. A few studies suggest that the degree of sedation can determine whether IN instillation can result in colonization or infection: light anesthesia may preserve airway protection and prevent leakage of the bacterial suspension from the upper airways into the bronchial tree [65,66,67]. Both models showed an increased susceptibility to pneumococcal pneumonia similar to what is seen in human subjects. Antifungal drugs are usually effective in treating ringworm. A different group of investigators showed that, in a baboon model infected by IB inoculation with pneumococcus (serotype 4) 109 CFU, the animals developed signs and symptoms of pneumonia four days post-infection. Follow your veterinarians treatment program carefully because many antibiotics are not suitable for use in rabbits. All other mammals are resistant to the virus. Transmission of both forms is by ingestion, usually in contaminated feed or water. The major aims of studies on rat models of pneumococcal pneumonia consist in collecting data on pathogenesis, survival, bacterial counts in lung and blood, pathological and histological characteristics, drug efficacy, and vaccine evaluation both in adults and children (Table 3). in 2017 [72], another method described to induce lung infection is direct intrabronchial instillation. In addition, subsequent studies focused on the role of the spleen in clearing pneumococci during experimental sepsis created by intracardiac inoculation [111,112]. Candiani G., Abbondi M., Borgonovi M., Williams R. Experimental lobar pneumonia due to penicillin-susceptible and penicillin-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae in immunocompetent and neutropenic rats: Efficacy of penicillin and teicoplanin treatment. Briles D.E., Nahm M., Schroer K., Davie J., Baker P., Kearney J., Barletta R. Antiphosphocholine. The CO2 content in the aerosol promotes deep ventilation [30,68,69]. Rat models are also useful to focus on pneumococcal sepsis, especially on conditions related to immunodepression, such as post-splenectomy. o [ canine influenza] To our knowledge, limited information is available regarding swine models of pneumococcal infection. The trusted provider of veterinary information since 1955, Description and Physical Characteristics of Rabbits, Last review/revision Aug 2020 | Modified Oct 2022. Fredenburgh L.E., Kraft B.D., Hess D.R., Harris R.S., Wolf M.A., Suliman H.B., Roggli V.L., Davies J.D., Winkler T., Stenzler A., et al. Smith G.M., Abbott K.H. The assessment of the different animal models will include considerations regarding pneumococcal strains, microbiology properties, procedures used for bacterial inoculation, pathogenesis, clinical characteristics, diagnosis, treatment, and preventive approaches. This main difference is driven by 51% increased number of adults older than 70 years globally. o [pig guinea] Nelson S., Happel K.I., Zhang P., Myers L., Dufour J.P., Bagby G.J. This model has been used to assess survival, host-pathogen responses (e.g., complement function), and bacterial pathogenicity (e.g., bacterial load in the blood) [76,88,91,92]. Induction of pulmonary inflammation by components of the pneumococcal cell surface. Preventive measures include protecting rabbits from exposure to insects and ticks that transmit diseases. Enterotoxemia causes rapidly developing, severe diarrhea, primarily in rabbits 4 to 8 weeks old. To facilitate distal migration of the inoculum to the alveoli, anesthetized animals are usually kept in supine position with their heads elevated at a 45-degree angle until anesthesia has waned [45]. Treatment of pneumococcal postsplenectomy sepsis in the rat with human gamma-globulin. Transmission is by direct contact. Cho S.J., Rooney K., Choi A.M.K., Stout-Delgado H.W. Another advantage of NPH models is that they develop symptoms consistent with lower respiratory tract infection similar to what is seen in humans. Rabbits show few signs and die within 24 hours of fever onset. It may be associated with eye irritants, eyelid disorders, and dental disease. The virus is transmitted by mosquitoes, fleas, biting flies, and direct contact. These bacteria also tend to multiply when a rabbit develops diarrhea for any reason. Other signs include discharge of pus from the nose, difficulty breathing, and coma. Indoor rabbits can also be affected by pneumonia. Here are some of the microorganisms that can cause severe lung inflammation disease. Viruses causing pneumonia Common viruses include myxoma virus, coronavirus, and herpesvirus. They also make your pet to be vulnerable to bacterial caused pneumonia. Copyright 2023 Merck & Co., Inc., Rahway, NJ, USA and its affiliates. These models were created to test the impact of multiple interventions such as therapeutic and immunization agents. For aerosol anesthesia, the animals are placed in a chamber where the anesthetic (usually isofluorane, halothane, or methoxyflurane) is vaporized. It seems to be mildly contagious in rabbit colonies. For this reason, colonization and infection need to be induced through experimental procedures. Initial signs of paralysis may go away within 3 to 5 days as swelling around the cord shrinks. Animal models of pneumonia using rats are less common than mouse models. Diagnosis is based on findings on postmortem examination (after death), such as signs of bacterial blood infection, spots on the liver, and liver and spleen enlargement. Another important aspect related to pneumococcal infections includes the persistent rates of penicillin and macrolide resistance that represent a challenge for patients with this condition [6,7,8]. A value of p < 0.05 was set as statistical significance. Diagnosis depends on history, signs, lesions, and detection of Clostridium bacteria. WebIn a colony of rabbits the mortality rate can be very varied, usually being between 30% and 90%. Corneal ulceration (an ulcer on the front of the eyeball) is the most common eye problem in rabbits. Effective treatments are available. Penicillin-resistant pneumococcal strains and other resistant phenotypes have been established in rabbit models in order to evaluate efficacy of new antibiotics [18,101,105,106]. Ershler W.B., Hebert J.C., Blow A.J., Granter S.R., Lynch J. This research received no external funding. 1 2. Saladino R.A., Stack A.M., Fleisher G.R., Thompson C.M., Briles D.E., Kobzik l Siber G.R. The source of infection was not determined. A swine model of pneumococcal infection, used to assess pneumococcal invasive disease after S. pneumoniae serotype 8 IV administration, developed bacteremia with high pneumococcal bacterial burden within 48 h post inoculation [125]. Clostridium spiroforme bacteria are the usual cause of enterotoxemia. However, after experimental infant rhesus (n = 8) nasopharyngeal instillation of human S. pneumoniae strain (19F), 100% of the animals had evidence of colonization at two weeks and 60% at seven weeks post instillation, confirming that rhesus macaques may serve as a human-like carriage model [128]. Charles P.E., Piroth L., Desbiolles N., Lequeu C., Martin L., Portier H., Chavanet P. New model of ventilator-associated pneumonia in immunocompetent rabbits. Only rarely is anesthesia delivered through the IV route [46]. Alcantara R.B., Preheim L.C., Gentry M.J. Role of pneumolysins complement-activating activity during pneumococcal bacteremia in cirrhotic rats. Butorphanol Tramadol Your veterinarian can perform laboratory tests to confirm the diagnosis of coccidiosis. The cause is typically Pasteurella bacteria, but other bacteria may be involved. Fever is often present. If you suspect that your rabbit has heat exhaustion, dampen its ears with cool water and take it immediately to your veterinarian or an emergency clinic. Streptococcus pneumoniae has been linked to high rates of morbidity and mortality, especially in children under 2, immunocompromised individuals, and the elderly population. In particular, cultures of tracheal secretions, bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL), protectedspecimen brushes (PSB), and direct lung aspirates were compared with cultures of lung homogenates and with histological findings [119]. Alternately, other experimental surrogate infection models are the result of an infection created by a human pathogen given to a pig (eg. An official website of the United States government. Kuikka A., Syrjanen J., Renkonen O.V., Valtonen V.V. The first sign of disease is conjunctivitis (inflammation of the eye) that rapidly becomes more severe and is accompanied by a milky discharge from the eye. Treatment is difficult and generally involves several weeks of antibiotics. The roundworm Baylisascaris procyonis has been reported in rabbits. WebRabbits show few signs and die within 24 hours of fever onset. A study of the subgross pulmonary anatomy of various mammals. Intestinal disease is a major cause of death in young rabbits. Also, see Breeding and Reproduction of Rabbits Breeding and Reproduction of Rabbits Rabbit breeds of medium to large size are sexually mature at 4 to 4.5 months, giant breeds at 6 to 9 months, and small breeds (such as the Polish Dwarf and Dutch) at 3.5 to 4 months of age. read more . Rubins J.B., Charboneau D. Effect of anesthetics on pathogenesis of experimentally induced murine pneumococcal pneumonia. hypogammaglobulinemia may be encountered. The earliest physical sign is a slight thickening of the tissues just below the skin, followed by development of a soft swelling with distinct edges. Acute Probiotic supplements may be recommended to reestablish the natural balance of microorganisms in the animals digestive system. Induction of neutropenia is achieved though IP injections with an immunosuppressant drug such as cyclophosphamide, with administration schemes that tend to show slight variations from author to author in terms of timing and dose. This technique was first used in rat models and later modified for mice. Majhi A., Kundu K., Adhikary R., Banerjee M., Mahanti S., Basu A., Bishayi B. The direct intrabronchial infection method does not require surgical skills but can result technically difficult give the small size of the animal. published in 2016 found Firmicutes, Proteobacteria, Bacteroidetes, and Actinobacteria to be the most abundant phyla found in the upper respiratory tract of aging mice [24]. Sequestration and homing of bone marrow-derived lineage negative progenitor cells in the lung during pneumococcal pneumonia. Young rabbits of weaning age are most susceptible. CXR: chest X-rays; CT: computerized tomography; US: ultrasounds. The disease causes damage to the intestines, liver, and heart. Pneumococcal bacteraemia during a recent decade. Affected animals develop raised, reddened, circular sores that are capped with white, flaky material. Swine as models in biomedical research and toxicology testing. Efficacy of antimicrobial chemotherapy in experimental rat pneumonia: Effects of impaired phagocytosis. Clement C.G., Tuvim M.J., Evans C.M., Tuvin D.M., Dickey B.F., Evans S.E. Development of experimental respiratory infections in neutropenic rats with either penicillin-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae or beta-lactamase-producing Haemophilus influenzae. Idanpaan-Heikkila I.P., Simon M., Zopf D., Vullo T., Cahill P., Sokol K., Tuomanen E. Oligosaccharides interfere with the establishment and progression of experimental pneumococcal pneumonia. The study showed by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) that pneumococcus persisted in the oropharynx for at least seven consecutive days [126]. Influence of pulmonary bacteriology and histology on the yield of diagnostic procedures in ventilator-acquired pneumonia. Rat models are also considered suitable to evaluate pneumonia in immunocompromised hosts, especially in asplenic, neutropenic, cirrhotic, or alcoholic subjects [76]. Mold C., Rodic-Polic B., Du Clos T.W. Transmission is by direct contact. Diagnosis is made by finding the eggs during examination of feces. Role of Inflammatory Risk Factors in the Pathogenesis of Streptococcus pneumoniae. WebPneumonia Data are for the U.S. Vaccination Percent of adults aged 18 and over who had ever received a pneumococcal vaccination: 24.0% (2021) Source: Interactive Summary Health Statistics for Adults: National Health Interview Survey, 2019-2021 Emergency department visits Streptococcus pneumoniae pneumonia in mice: Optimal amoxicillin dosing predicted from a pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic model. The condition occurs in rabbits as young as 3 to 4 weeks of age and is thought to be inherited. The oral papillomavirus is distinct from the Shope papillomavirus (which is also distinct from the Shope fibroma virus). For instance, squirrel monkeys given IT 1056 108 colony-forming units (CFU) of S. pneumoniae died four to six days later after developing severe illness characterized by fever, bacteremia, lethargy, anorexia, coughing, labored breathing, and bronchopneumonia [132]. Special issue on porcine immunology: An introduction from the guest editor. Pneumococci inoculated by IP administration allow researchers to assess for clinical parameters measured during the progression of the disease [109]. human pneumococcal serotypes 8 and 6b) [114]. WebCumulative Survival Probability of Persistently Neutropenic Rabbits with Experimental Pseudomonas aeruginosa Pneumonia: Impact on Strains with Genetically Defined P <0.001. Importance of CXC chemokine receptor 2 in alveolar neutrophil and exudate macrophage recruitment in response to pneumococcal lung infection. In general, the oro-tracheal, the direct intratracheal, and the direct intrabronchial models offer a more precise delivery of the inoculum directly into the airways. Infections can be caused by bacteria or viruses. Community-acquired pneumonia. Shivshankar P., Boyd A.R., Le Saux C.J., Yeh I.T., Orihuela C.J. Cytokine kinetics and other host factors in response to pneumococcal pulmonary infection in mice. Ear mites are common in rabbits. The main downside of its lower invasiveness is however that the operator must be skilled at injecting the inoculum with the right timing while the animal is inhaling. Outdoor hutches should be constructed so that they can be sprinkled with water in hot, humid weather. Affected rabbits develop small blisters or slow-healing sores that become covered with a heavy scab. The most common laboratory findings include leukocytosis, or leukopenia if severe renal dysfunction, and decreased oxygenation. Study of the literature on the topic also showed a very high variability between lab to lab. If antibiotic treatment is started early (the first day the doe stops eating), the rabbit may be saved and damage limited to 1 or 2 mammary glands. The surgical technique consists in exposing the apical lobe and delivering bacteria into several apical lobe bronchi through the bronchial wall into the lumen [77]. However, you should always check with your veterinarian before giving your rabbit juices or enzyme supplements. In countries where pneumococcal vaccines are used, the prevalence of the aforementioned serotypes has dropped. Infected rabbits usually sneeze and cough. Reproductive disorders of rabbits include bacterial infections and metabolic disorders. Feed hoppers and water crocks must be cleaned and disinfected daily to prevent them from becoming contaminated with animal droppings. Some diseases of rabbits can also infect people and are considered to be public health concerns. Moine P., Valle E., Azoulay-Dupuis E., Bourget P., Bdos J.P., Bauchet J., Pocidalo J.J. Lung ultrasonography consistently identified pneumonia affected lobes correlated by pathological analyses. Possible contributing factors include obesity and lack of exercise. FMS-like tyrosine kinase 3 ligand treatment of mice aggravates acute lung injury in response to Streptococcus pneumoniae: Role of pneumolysin. The eyelids, nose, lips, and ears become puffy, which gives a swollen appearance to the head. Reporting a disease allows these agencies to identify trends in disease occurrence. Commercially available outbred mice for genome-wide association studies. Investigators showed evidence of ventilator-compatible carbon monoxide inhalational delivery system that may accelerate the resolution of ARDS in a clinically relevant NHP model mentioned above (i.e., baboon) [141]. The special case of Streptococcus pneumoniae. Swine models allow various surgical and non-surgical procedures typically used in human medicine. Cirrhosis is induced by administration of a hepatotoxin that causes cirrhosis and ascites [88]. In vivo efficacy of a new fluoroquinolone, sparfloxacin, againstpenicillin-susceptible and -resistant and multiresistant strains of Streptococcus pneumoniae in a mouse model of pneumonia. Assessment of the efficacy of telithromycin simulating human exposures against S. pneumoniae with ribosomal mutations in a murine pneumonia model. Bdos J.P., Azoulay-Dupuis E., Moine P., Muffat-Joly M., Veber B., Pocidalo J.J., Valle E. Pharmacodynamic activities of ciprofloxacin and sparfloxacin in a murine pneumococcal pneumonia model: Relevance for drug efficacy. On the other hand, the oro-tracheal is more invasive and requires the operator to have specific surgical skills but is independent of the animals respiratory cycle. As in all animal models, also in rabbit models of pneumococcal pneumonia establish inhaled or aspirated bacterial load threshold that determines the development of bacterial pneumonia is a standard part of model development and it is repeated every time a new strain is used in the model [102]. It occasionally affects adults and adolescent rabbits. Prevention requires good sanitation. Accuracy of Complement Activation Product Levels to Detect Infected Pleural Effusion in Rats. Transmission occurs via mosquitoes, fleas, biting flies, and direct contact. In females, the vulva becomes inflamed and swollen with fluid; in males, the scrotum swells. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/, https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/the-top-10-causes-of-death, Host defence mechanisms against pneumococcal infection, Role of airway obstruction in pathogenesis, Mechanisms of tissue damage in pneumococcal pneumonia, Evaluate pharmacokinetic and efficacy of different drugs, Development of directed therapies against pneumococcus, Therapies against inflammatory complications, Effect of pneumoccoccal cell surface components, Role of the platelet-activating factor on lung inflammation, Evaluate platelet activation and hyperreactivity reactions, Evaluate pneumonia in immunocompromised host. Longterm infection of the prostate is likely. Although the species of Treponema that causes rabbit treponematosis is closely related to the species that causes human syphilis, these bacteria are not transmissible to other domestic animals or humans. Because there is no effective treatment, euthanasia is suggested. WebLosses in rabbitries may be 25%90%. In the IN model, the bacterial suspension is applied into the nostrils through a pipette tip. On the hosts side, genetic background influences susceptibility to infection. Piroth L., Desbiolles N., Mateo-Ponce V., Martin L., Lequeu C., Charles P.E., Portier H., Chavanet P. HMR 3647 human-like treatment of experimental pneumonia due to penicillin-resistant and erythromycin-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae. Cohen J.M., Khandavilli S., Camberlein E., Hyams C., Baxendale H.E., Brown J.S. Summary of the specific aims of the animal models cited in the present review. Review articles and book chapters are cited to provide readers with more details and more references. If open water receptacles are used, they should have small openings or be elevated. Rabbits that carry the fungus without showing any signs are very common. This can be obtained by using two main different techniques: the oro-tracheal/peroral and the tracheal puncture technique, respectively. If both horns are affected, the doe often becomes sterile. Papillomas in the mouth, caused by rabbit oral papillomavirus, are small, gray-white lumps or warts on the bottom of the tongue or on the floor of the mouth. The IV and IPe routes are mainly used to induce systemic pneumococcal infection that leads to bacteremia and then a possible secondary pneumonia [7]. Hausdorff W.P., Bryant J., Paradiso P.R., Siber G.R. Rabbit Guide A simple guide to caring for pet The rabbit thoracic cavity is small and the thymus, which is located in the cranial mediastinum, persists in the adult. Both types are caused by Eimeria protozoa. poor sanitation, and dirty nesting material make rabbits susceptible to pneumonia. Azoulay-Dupuis E., Rieux V., Muffat-Joly M., Bdos J.P., Valle E., Rivier C., Isturiz R., Carbon C., Moine P. Relationship between capsular type, penicillin susceptibility, and virulence of human Streptococcus pneumoniae isolates in mice.